electrical

AC Circuits and Phasor Analysis: Impedance, Phase Angle, and Resonance

A concise guide to analyzing AC circuits using phasors: impedance calculation, phase relationships between voltage and current, and tuned resonant circuits.

11 min read · Systems: Power Systems · Electronics · Signal Processing
Animation of a sine wave being traced by a rotating phasor
A phasor rotates at angular frequency ω — its projection onto the vertical axis traces the sinusoidal waveform.Wikimedia Commons, public domain

Phasors simplify AC analysis

Representing sinusoidal voltages and currents as rotating vectors (phasors) transforms differential equations into algebraic complex-number equations.

  • Resistor: V and I are in phase (Z = R, angle = 0°).
  • Inductor: V leads I by 90° (Z = jωL).
  • Capacitor: I leads V by 90° (Z = 1/jωC = −j/ωC).

Impedance and power factor

Total impedance Z = R + jX determines the magnitude and phase of current for a given voltage. Power factor cos(θ) = R/|Z| reflects how efficiently energy is consumed.

  • Unity power factor (cosθ = 1) means all apparent power is real power.
  • Inductive loads (motors, transformers) draw lagging current; capacitors correct this.
  • Power triangle: S² = P² + Q² where S is apparent (VA), P real (W), Q reactive (VAR).

Resonance in RLC circuits

At resonance, X_L = X_C and impedance is purely resistive. Resonant frequency ω₀ = 1/√(LC).

  • Series resonance: minimum impedance, maximum current.
  • Parallel resonance: maximum impedance, minimum current drawn from source.
  • Q factor = ω₀L/R determines sharpness of response — critical for filter design.

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